The Fake Majority: Inside the Invisible Machinery of Astroturfing. A serial mediation model

Abstract

Purpose: This study explores how perceived astroturfing and media literacy influence individuals’ critical responses to online content. It examines whether awareness of astroturfing and self-reported evaluation style mediate this relationship, challenging the assumption that media literacy alone ensures ethical digital behavior. Methodology: A cross-sectional web-based survey was conducted in Romania between March and April 2025 with a convenience sample of 226 participants aged 18 to 73. The questionnaire measured perceived media literacy, four dimensions of astroturfing awareness, evaluation style, and critical response. Data were analyzed using structural equation modelling (SEM) with serial mediation, employing diagonally weighted least squares (DWLS) and bootstrapped confidence intervals. Results: Media literacy did not directly predict critical response. However, it significantly increased astroturfing awareness, which in turn strongly predicted ethical behavior online (β = 0.56, p < .001). Evaluation style had a marginal role, and age was slightly associated with a more rational response style. The model showed excellent fit indices (CFI = 0.991, RMSEA = 0.03). Conclusions: Media literacy fosters ethical engagement only when users recognize coordinated manipulation. Astroturfing awareness functions as a catalyst for activating critical response, emphasizing the need to integrate detection of digital inauthenticity into educational curricula. Collateral information: Limitations include the cross-sectional design and reliance on self-reported measures. Implications highlight the importance of platform transparency and media education reform.