The construction of anti-Muslim hate speech on X: an exploratory analysis of comments by media ideology in six Spanish media outlets (March and May 2025)

Abstract

Social media have become key spaces for the dissemination of hate speech. Among these, Islamophobia emerges as a form of religious racism that combines cultural prejudice and exclusionary narratives. In the Spanish context, the media play a significant role in shaping the image of Islam and Muslim people. This study analyzes how anti-Muslim hate speech manifests on the social network X, considering the ideological orientation of news media outlets. A quantitative, exploratory, and descriptive approach was applied. A total of 53,787 comments posted between March and May 2025 were analyzed from the accounts of six Spanish media outlets (El País, Público, 20 Minutos, El Confidencial, ABC, and OKDiario). Messages were manually coded (intercoder reliability = 95%) according to the type and intensity of religious hate (levels 1–4), and descriptive analyses and Chi-square tests were conducted to examine differences based on ideological orientation (left, center, right). A total of 297 messages (0.6%) containing anti-Muslim content were identified. Right-leaning media (64.3%) accounted for the highest proportion, followed by centrist (33.0%) and left-leaning outlets (2.7%). Messages of low or moderate intensity predominated, with no significant differences in interaction or tone. 95% combined Islamophobia and xenophobia. Although a minority, anti-Muslim discourse reflects a clear ideological media bias and a form of “camouflaged hate”, subtle and persistent, which contributes to the normalization of prejudice and highlights the need for digital literacy and moderation policies that also address implicit expressions of hate.