Fake news, disinformation and the democratic state A case study of the UK government's narrative
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Desde el referéndum de 2014 en el Reino Unido sobre la independencia de Escocia, varios líderes políticos de Occidente han acusado al gobierno ruso de desinformación organizada a escala industrial, diseñada para socavar el proceso democrático. Varias acusaciones también han sugerido que el Kremlin ha estado proporcionando ayuda financiera y de otro tipo a grupos de extrema derecha en Occidente para interrumpir el proceso político. En este análisis, se toma el estudio de caso del Reino Unido en el período 2014-20. Se examina la investigación actual sobre la escala y el efecto de las estrategias organizadas de desinformación rusas; y la narrativa oficial emergente en el gobierno del Reino Unido sobre cómo abordar el problema. Esta narrativa revela una interacción compleja entre defender la democracia, mientras se mantiene un enfoque de "no intervención" y se garantiza que los negocios tecnológicos sean bienvenidos.
Palabras clave:
inteligencia, desinformación, democracia, híbrido, Rusia
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Richards, Julian. 2021. «Fake News, Disinformation and the Democratic State: A Case Study of the UK government’s Narrative». Revista ICONO 14. Revista científica De Comunicación Y Tecnologías Emergentes 19 (1):95-122. https://doi.org/10.7195/ri14.v19i1.1611.
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Esta obra está bajo una licencia de Creative Commons Reconocimiento 4.0 Internacional.
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Guess, A., Nagler, J. and Tucker, J. (2019). Less than you think: Prevalence and predictors of fake news dissemination on Facebook. Science Advances, 5(1), 1-8
Hansen, I. and Lim, D.J. (2019). Doxing democracy: influencing elections via cyber voter interference. Contemporary Politics, 25(2), 150-171
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House of Commons (2018). Democracy under threat: risks and solutions in the era of disinformation and data monopoly . 42nd Parliament, 1st session, December 2018. Ottawa. Retrieved August 15, 2020, from https://www.ourcommons.ca/Content/Committee/421/ETHI/Reports/RP10242267/ethirp17/ethirp17-e.pdf
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Llewellyn, C., Cram, L., Hill, R.L. and Favero, A. (2019). For Whom the Bell Trolls: Shifting Troll Behaviour in the Twitter Brexit Debate. Journal of Common Market Studies, 57(5), 1148-1164
Maness, R.C. (2018). Death by a thousand cuts: is Russia winning the information war with the West? Paper presented at the 2018 International Studies Association Meeting. Retrieved August 10, 2020, from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/326926354_Death_by_a_Thousand_Cuts_Is_Russia_Winning_the_Information_War_with_the_West
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Paul, C. and Matthews, M. (2016). The Russian “Firehose of Falsehood” Propaganda Model. RAND Corporation, Perspective, PE-198-OSD [2016]
Power. M. (2004). The Risk Management of Everything: Rethinking the Politics of Uncertainty. London, Demos
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Richards, J. (2019). Intelligence gathering, issues of accountability and Snowden. In Hale-Ross, S. and Lowe, D. (Eds.) Terrorism and State Surveillance of Communications (pp.19-37). London, Routledge
RT News (2017, December 21). Theresa May accuses Russia of ‘weaponizing information’ during visit to Poland. Retrieved August 10, 2020, from https://www.rt.com/uk/413890-may-russia-poland-defence/
Sabbah, D., Harding, L. and Roth, A. (2020, July 21). Russia report reveals UK government failed to investigate Kremlin interference. The Guardian. Retrieved August 17, 2020, from https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/jul/21/russia-report-reveals-uk-government-failed-to-address-kremlin-interference-scottish-referendum-brexit
Schultz, R.H. and Godson, R. (1984). Dezinformatsia: Active Measures in Soviet Strategy. Washington D.C., Pergamon-Brassey’s
Sonne, P. (2018, December 27). A Russian bank gave Marine Le Pen’s party a loan. Then weird things began happening. The Washington Post. Retrieved August 12, 2020 from https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/national-security/a-russian-bank-gave-marine-le-pens-party-a-loan-then-weird-things-began-happening/2018/12/27/960c7906-d320-11e8-a275-81c671a50422_story.html
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Wintour, P. and Mason, R. (2014, March 31). Nigel Farage’s relationship with Russian media comes under scrutiny. The Guardian. Retrieved August 10, 2020 from https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2014/mar/31/nigel-farage-relationship-russian-media-scrutiny
Bakshy, E., Messing, S. and Adamic, L.A. (2015). Exposure to ideologically diverse news and opinion on Facebook. Science, 348(6239), 1130-1132
Bastos, M.T. and Mercea, D. (2017). The Brexit botnet and user-generated hyperpartisan news. Social Science Computer Review, 37 , 38-54
BBC (2018, July 26). Vote Leave’s targeted Brexit ads released by Facebook. Retrieved August 20, 2020, from https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-44966969
BBC (2019, November 4). Powerful ‘Putin’s chef’ Prigozhin cooks up murky deals. Retrieved August 19, 2020, from https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-50264747
Beck, U. (2006). Living in the world risk society. Economy and Society, 35(3), 329-345
BNP (2011). Russian elections ‘much fairer than Britain’s’. Cited in cited in Klapsis, 2015.
Booth, R., Weaver, M., Hern, A., Smith, S. and Walker, S. (2017). Russia used hundreds of fake accounts to tweet about Brexit, data shows. The Guardian. Retrieved August 19, 2020, from https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/nov/14/how-400-russia-run-fake-accounts-posted-bogus-brexit-tweets
Cadwalladr, C. (2018, June 16). Arron Banks, Brexit and the Russia connection. The Guardian. Retrieved August 20, 2020, from https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2018/jun/16/arron-banks-nigel-farage-leave-brexit-russia-connection
Carroll, O. (2019, July 2). Britain First: Far-right British group invited to speak at Russian parliament. The Independent. Retrieved July 18, 2020, from https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/britain-first-russia-paul-golding-duma-parliament-far-right-a8984521.html
Cavelty, M.D., Kaufmann, M. and Kristensen, K.S. (2015) Resilience and (in)security: Practices, subjects, temporalities. Security Dialogue, 46(1), 3-14
Coaffee, J., Wood, D.M. and Rogers, P. (2009). The Everyday Resilience of the City: How Cities Respond to Terrorism and Disaster. Basingstoke, Palgrave Macmillan
Daily Mail (2012, January 27). Mailonline: the world’s number one: We’re the biggest newspaper website with 45.348 million unique users. Retrieved August 10, 2020 from https://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2092432/MailOnline-worlds-number-Daily-Mail-biggest-newspaper-website-45-348-million-unique-users.html
Dawson, A. and Innes, M. (2019). How Russia’s internet Research Agency built its Disinformation Campaign. The Political Quarterly, 1-12
DCMS (2019a). Disinformation and “fake news”: Final Report. Eighth Report of Session 2017-19. London, House of Commons, HC 1791. Retrieved August 15, 2020, from https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm201719/cmselect/cmcumeds/1791/179102.htm
DCMS (2019b). Disinformation and “fake news”: Final Report: Government’s Response to the Committee’s Eighth Report of Session 2017-19. London, House of Commons, HC 2184. Retrieved August 15, 2020, from https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm201719/cmselect/cmcumeds/2184/2184.pdf
DCMS and Home Office (2020). Online Harms White Paper – Initial Consultation Response. Updated 12 February 2020. Retrieved August 15, 2020, from https://www.gov.uk/government/consultations/online-harms-white-paper/public-feedback/online-harms-white-paper-initial-consultation-response
Electoral Commission (2020). Joint announcement by The Electoral Commission, Mr Robert Posner, Mr Arron Banks and Ms Elizabeth Bilney. Retrieved August 15, 2020 from https://www.electoralcommission.org.uk/media-centre/joint-announcement-electoral-commission-mr-robert-posner-mr-arron-banks-and-ms-elizabeth-bilney
Flaxman, S., Goel, S. and Rao, J.S. (2016). Filter bubbles, echo chambers, and online news consumption. Public Opinion Quarterly, 80, 298-320
Free Russia Forum (2020, April 3). British far-right activist “Tommy Robinson” in Moscow. Retrieved August 20, 2020, from https://www.forumfreerussia.org/en/news-en/2020-04-03/british-far-right-activist-tommy-robinson-in-moscow/ffr/
Gill, P. (2006). Not Just Joining the Dots but Crossing the Borders and Bridging the Voids: Constructing Security Networks after 11 September 2001. Policing and Society, 16(1), 27-49
Grinberg, N., Joseph, K., Friedland, L., Swire-Thompson, B. and Lazer, D. (2019). Fake news on Twitter during the 2016 U.S. presidential election. Science, 363, 374-378
Guess, A., Nagler, J. and Tucker, J. (2019). Less than you think: Prevalence and predictors of fake news dissemination on Facebook. Science Advances, 5(1), 1-8
Hansen, I. and Lim, D.J. (2019). Doxing democracy: influencing elections via cyber voter interference. Contemporary Politics, 25(2), 150-171
HMG (2020). Government Response to the Intelligence and Security Committee of Parliament Report “Russia”. London, CP 275. Retrieved August 15, 2020, from https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/902342/HMG_Russia_Response_web_accessible.pdf
House of Commons (2018). Democracy under threat: risks and solutions in the era of disinformation and data monopoly . 42nd Parliament, 1st session, December 2018. Ottawa. Retrieved August 15, 2020, from https://www.ourcommons.ca/Content/Committee/421/ETHI/Reports/RP10242267/ethirp17/ethirp17-e.pdf
Innes, M. (2017). Russian influence and interference measures following the 2017 UK terrorist attacks. Cardiff University Crime and Security Research Institute/CREST
ISC (2020a). Russia. London, HC 632 . Retrieved August 12, 2020 from https://docs.google.com/a/independent.gov.uk/viewer?a=v&pid=sites&srcid=aW5kZXBlbmRlbnQuZ292LnVrfGlzY3xneDo1Y2RhMGEyN2Y3NjM0OWFl
ISC (2020b). Press notice: Intelligence and Security Committee publish predecessor’s Russia report. Retrieved August 15, 2020 from https://docs.google.com/a/independent.gov.uk/viewer?a=v&pid=sites&srcid=aW5kZXBlbmRlbnQuZ292LnVrfGlzY3xneDoxMmRkZmU2MjQ4ZWEzNDI0
Klapsis, A. (2015). An Unholy Alliance: The European Far Right and Putin’s Russia. Brussels, Wilfied Martens Centre for European Studies
Llewellyn, C., Cram, L., Hill, R.L. and Favero, A. (2019). For Whom the Bell Trolls: Shifting Troll Behaviour in the Twitter Brexit Debate. Journal of Common Market Studies, 57(5), 1148-1164
Maness, R.C. (2018). Death by a thousand cuts: is Russia winning the information war with the West? Paper presented at the 2018 International Studies Association Meeting. Retrieved August 10, 2020, from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/326926354_Death_by_a_Thousand_Cuts_Is_Russia_Winning_the_Information_War_with_the_West
Mason, R. (2017, November 14). Theresa May accuses Russia of interfering in elections and fake news. The Guardian. Retrieved August 10, 2020, from https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2017/nov/13/theresa-may-accuses-russia-of-interfering-in-elections-and-fake-news
Matthews, O. (2020, July 25). Unleash chaos: How Putin plans to make the West destroy itself. The Spectator, pp.10-11
Nimmo, B. (2017, December 13). #Election Watch : Scottish Vote, Pro-Kremlin Trolls. DFRLab. Retrieved August 15, 2020, from https://medium.com/dfrlab/electionwatch-scottish-vote-pro-kremlin-trolls-f3cca45045bb
Ohlin, J.D. (2018). Election Interference: The Real Harm and the Only Solution. Cornell Law School, Legal Studies Research Paper no. 18-50
Paul, C. and Matthews, M. (2016). The Russian “Firehose of Falsehood” Propaganda Model. RAND Corporation, Perspective, PE-198-OSD [2016]
Power. M. (2004). The Risk Management of Everything: Rethinking the Politics of Uncertainty. London, Demos
Richards, J. (2012). A Guide to National Security: Threats, Responses and Strategies. Abingdon, Oxford University Press
Richards, J. (2019). Intelligence gathering, issues of accountability and Snowden. In Hale-Ross, S. and Lowe, D. (Eds.) Terrorism and State Surveillance of Communications (pp.19-37). London, Routledge
RT News (2017, December 21). Theresa May accuses Russia of ‘weaponizing information’ during visit to Poland. Retrieved August 10, 2020, from https://www.rt.com/uk/413890-may-russia-poland-defence/
Sabbah, D., Harding, L. and Roth, A. (2020, July 21). Russia report reveals UK government failed to investigate Kremlin interference. The Guardian. Retrieved August 17, 2020, from https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/jul/21/russia-report-reveals-uk-government-failed-to-address-kremlin-interference-scottish-referendum-brexit
Schultz, R.H. and Godson, R. (1984). Dezinformatsia: Active Measures in Soviet Strategy. Washington D.C., Pergamon-Brassey’s
Sonne, P. (2018, December 27). A Russian bank gave Marine Le Pen’s party a loan. Then weird things began happening. The Washington Post. Retrieved August 12, 2020 from https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/national-security/a-russian-bank-gave-marine-le-pens-party-a-loan-then-weird-things-began-happening/2018/12/27/960c7906-d320-11e8-a275-81c671a50422_story.html
Stelzenmüller, C. (2017). The Impact of Russian Interference on Germany’s 2017 Elections. Testimony delivered to the U.S. Senate Committee on Intelligence, June 28, 2017. Retrieved August 10, 2020 from https://www.brookings.edu/testimonies/the-impact-of-russian-interference-on-germanys-2017-elections/
Wintour, P. and Mason, R. (2014, March 31). Nigel Farage’s relationship with Russian media comes under scrutiny. The Guardian. Retrieved August 10, 2020 from https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2014/mar/31/nigel-farage-relationship-russian-media-scrutiny